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Critique of Practical Reason

Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing wonder and awe, the more often and accurately takes care of reflection: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me. Both things do not suppose I can try and simply as if they were hidden darkness or in the transcendent, outside of my horizon I see them in front of me and I connect immediately with the consciousness of my existence. The first starts from the place that I occupy in the external world of sense, and extends the connection in which I am infinitely large, with worlds upon worlds and systems of systems, and also in the indefinite time of their periodic motion, their beginning and their continuity. The second begins from my invisible identity, personality, and puts me in a world which has true infinity, but you can notice only the intellect, and who (but thanks to it with all those visible worlds) I I do not recognize, as there, in a purely connection accidental, but a necessary and universal. The first glance of a innumerable amount of worlds annihilates as it were my importance, which is that of an animal creature, which must return to the material from which planets arose, after being fitted for a short time (do not know how) life force. The second raises the contrary infinitely my value, which is an intelligence, because of my personality, in which the moral law reveals to me a life independent from the animal and also from the world of sense, at least it can be inferred from the destination end of my existence through this law, which is not limited to the conditions and boundaries of this life, but extends to infinity. But, wonder and respect so they can push the search, but not to replace the deficiency. (I. Kant)

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Confucianism

Confucianism is the doctrine of Confucius and his followers that has dominated for over two thousand years, life ethics, politics and religion in China, as prescribed rites of state of the imperial house, as well as the cult of the ancestors of the family and had provided the public code of conduct (which China's rulers and their officials had to respect), and the private code of family life. The teachings of Confucius, was preserved by his disciples (some of which, however, reached prominent positions administration of the feudal state), in "Conversations", a non-systematic collection of short stories and sayings, made many years after his death. The canonical texts, namely the Four Books (intellectually more advanced) and the five charges, have little religious: it is rather of rules for practical action (personal, family, social and political-administrative). It 'a kind of philosophy of civil life, with implications that could be called religious. There are, however, revelation, dogma, sacraments, miracles, cosmogony and apocalypse. The study of Confucianism was forbidden during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) which followed on the Chou. Consolidation of several existing states and proclaiming for the first time in Chinese history, Emperor, the ruler of Cheng began a national identification irreversible movement, behaving in a manner hostile to the Confucian tradition, said to be too compromised with the feudal period of the previous year (even in 213 BC he ordered the burning of Confucian books). But the later Han dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) restored the Confucian tradition, so that in 59 AD, Emperor Ming-Ti ordered the beginnings of a cult in favor of Confucius. Since then and until the early twentieth century. his popularity knew no decline, even in the presence of Buddhism.

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The ordinary witch or sorcerer means Traditionally a person with witchcraft, which is believed to be endowed with occult powers, generally attributed to relationships with the devil. The figure of the witch, however, has roots that predates Christianity and is present in almost every culture as a figure halfway between the shaman and those who, endowed with occult powers, can use them to harm the community, especially in agriculture. The term derives from the Latin stryx, "barn", and in Italy vary greatly depending on the area to which it refers. In medieval Latin the word used is lamia. From the early seventeenth seccolo XII, across Europe, tens of thousands of people, mostly women, have ended at the stake, accused of being witches, ignorance at times took over the actual truth of belonging to the world of witchcraft. The blaze, the fire was the purification of the soul of the convicted or sentenced, the witch was seen primarily as an enemy and fought, was born the famous witch-hunt, with this form of persecution of innocent people even made it only costs maybe for some diversity. The Malleus Maleficarum, published in 1486, was the most popular manuals for witch-hunters during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. His writing is due to two German brothers, Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer, persecutors of heretics. The Malleus provided a theological endorsement to the most grotesque superstitions and led to the torture and death of thousands of innocent people, especially women. Witch would be assigned a strong influence on sexuality, and often it was believed responsible for causing undue infatuation, impotence and sterility. To cement their pact with the devil, they often had to have sex with him, eating children and manufacture ointments with their remains. Once entered into the pact, the witch's magical gestures were a sign for the devil, that the event did happen implied. The devil was on hand at all times of the witch. Accused of evil witches were usually tortured until confessed, but the Malleus also recommended that the confessions were coerced by promises of clemency, which, however, were then invariably rejected.

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SPINOZA WITCH HUNT: THE ETHICS

Within this framework of rules that are strictly necessary, one wonders what room is left to the freedom of human action, and that has meaning for Spinoza. The Spinoza project is first to frame the action in a geometry of human emotions to explain how the universal characters. The fundamental principle that characterizes the actions of men is the effort of self Spinoza (conatus): everything tends to emphasize and perpetuate his own being in accordance with its essence. The effort of self-preservation of the mind is called by Spinoza will, while the appetite of the body. Spinoza also says that man does not want to believe a thing because the good rather believe a good thing because he wants it. Thus, there are emotions, and in particular two basic emotions that are the joy and sadness, joy related to the conservation and improvement of their being, the sadness associated with its decline. In all this, Spinoza does not confer any moral value to the greatness that he intends the same way as numbers and geometric prepositions, it is clear that the man who lets himself be overwhelmed by emotions away from the perfect opportunity to understand the rationality of reality: ' error is this vision that is inadequate and confused idea of \u200b\u200bsomeone who not proceed according to reason. Human slavery is reflected in so overwhelmed by the idea that remain inadequate and confusing, and the only freedom is granted to him in understanding the intrinsic rationality that governs all things and adapt to it without damaging the object to unnecessary resistance. In contemplation of the need, therefore, is the man to his penis and the rest at the contemplation of God (since God is the same need), Spinoza's intellectual love of God calls this contemplation aware of the need (this step ethics Spinoza is about equal Stoic ethics that adapts to fate). Freedom for Spinoza therefore consists in removing obstacles for understanding the rational rules that determine us, slavery is rather ignorant of these rules.